Where the ice battle took place. Battle on the Ice (Battle on Lake Peipsi)

The borders of modern Russia are historically connected with the borders of the Russian Empire, which were influenced by certain events. And therefore, the significance of the Battle on the Ice is very great: thanks to him, the Teutonic Order forever abandoned its serious claims to the Russian lands. Although this did not protect our ancestors from the Golden Horde, it helped to defend, at least, the western borders, showed people in difficult times that they are capable of winning victories.

However, before the Battle of the Ice took place, it was preceded by other events that largely predetermined it. In particular, the Battle of the Neva, which clearly demonstrated the military leadership talent of the then young Prince Alexander. Therefore, it is worth starting with her.

The battle on the Neva itself is directly conditioned by the claims of both Swedes and Novgorodians to the Karelian Isthmus and to the Finnish tribes. That was due to the influence and the advance of the crusaders to the west. Here historians differ in their assessments of what happened. Some believe that Alexander Nevsky stopped the expansion by his actions. Others disagree, believing that the significance of his victories is grossly exaggerated, and that the Crusaders did not really have a real intention to seriously advance. So the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice still cause a lot of controversy. But it's worth going back to the first event.

So, the Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240. It should be noted that the young prince Alexander at that time was a very inexperienced commander, he participated in battles only with his father, Yaroslav. And this was, in fact, his first serious military test. Success was largely determined by the sudden appearance of the prince along with his retinue. The Swedes who landed at the mouth of the Neva did not expect a serious rebuff. In addition, in the summer they experienced severe thirst, as a result of which, as many historians have noted, they were either drunk or hungover. The camp set up near the river implied the presence of tents, which turned out to be very easy to cut down, which the youth Savva did.

The timely warning of the Izhora elder Pelgusius, who was watching these lands and sent messengers to Alexander, thus came as a complete surprise to the Swedes. As a result, the Battle of the Neva ended in a real defeat for them. According to some reports, the Swedes loaded almost 3 ships with the bodies of the dead, while the Novgorodians killed about 20 people. It is worth noting that the battle began in the afternoon and lasted until the evening, at night the hostilities ceased, and in the morning the Swedes began to flee. No one pursued them: Alexander Nevsky did not see the need for this, in addition, he was afraid to increase losses. Please note that he received his nickname after this victory.

What happened between the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice?

After the battle on the Neva River took place, the Swedes abandoned their claims. But this did not mean that the crusaders also stopped thinking about the conquest of Russia. Do not forget in what year the described event took place: our ancestors already had problems with the Golden Horde. That, together with the feudal fragmentation, significantly weakened the Slavs. Understanding the date is so important here because it allows you to relate some events to others.

Therefore, the defeat of the Swedes did not impress the Teutonic Order. The Danes and Germans decisively moved forward, captured Pskov, Izborsk, founded Koporye, where they decided to fortify themselves, making it their fort post. Even a brief summary of the Laurentian Chronicle, telling about those events, makes it clear that the Order's successes were significant.

At the same time, the boyars, who had considerable power in Novgorod, were alarmed about the victory of Alexander. They were afraid of the increase in his power. As a result, the prince left Novgorod after a major quarrel with them. But already in 1242, the boyars called him back with a retinue because of the Teutonic threat, especially since the enemy was coming close to the Novgorodians.

How did the battle take place?

So, the famous battle on Lake Peipsi Battle on the Ice took place in 1242 on April 5. At the same time, the battle was carefully prepared by the Russian prince. What makes it clear is the work of Konstantin Simonov dedicated to this event, which, although it cannot be called an impeccable historical source in terms of reliability, is quite well worked out.

In short, everything happened according to a certain scheme: the knights of the Order, in full heavy weapons, acted as a typical wedge for themselves. Such a ramming strike was intended to demonstrate to the enemy all the power, sweep him away, sow panic and break resistance. This tactic has proven itself many times in the past. But the Battle of the Ice in 1242 was really well prepared by Alexander Nevsky. He studied the weaknesses of the enemy, so the archers were waiting for the German "pig" at first, their main task was simply to lure out the knights. Which then stumbled upon heavily armed infantry with long pikes.

In fact, what happened next could hardly be called anything other than a massacre. The knights could not stop, because otherwise the front rows would have been crushed by the back ones. It was impossible to break the wedge at all. Therefore, the riders could only move forward, hoping to break the infantry. But the central regiment was weak, but the strong were placed on the sides, contrary to the then established military tradition. In addition, another squad was ambushed. In addition, Alexander Nevsky superbly studied the area where the Battle of the Ice took place, so his warriors were able to drive some of the knights to where the ice was very thin. As a result, many of them began to drown.

There is one more important factor. He is shown in "Alexander Nevsky", a famous painting, maps, pictures also depict him. This is the stampede of the Chudi, who helped the Order when she realized that professional warriors were fighting against her. Speaking even briefly about the Battle of the Ice, one cannot fail to note the excellent knowledge of the knights' weapons and weaknesses. So, they were downright helpless when pulled from their horses. And that is why the prince armed many of his soldiers with special hooks, which made it possible to throw the crusaders to the ground. At the same time, the battle that took place turned out to be very fierce in relation to the horses. To deprive the riders of this advantage, many have injured and killed animals.

But what were the results of the Battle of the Ice for both sides? Alexander Nevsky managed to repel the claims to Russia from the west, to strengthen the borders for centuries to come. Which was of particular importance, given how much the Slavs suffered from invasions from the east. In addition, the first battle in history took place, where infantrymen defeated heavily armed horsemen in full gear in battle, demonstrating to the whole world that this is quite real. And although the Battle on the Ice is not a very large scale, from this point of view, Alexander Nevsky demonstrated a good talent for a commander. As a prince, he gained a certain weight, they began to reckon with him.

As for the Order itself, it cannot be said that the discussed defeat was critical. But on Lake Peipsi, 400 knights perished, about 50 were taken prisoner. So for its century, the Battle of the Ice nevertheless caused quite serious damage to German and Danish chivalry. And for that year, this was not the only problem of the Order, which also collided with the Galicia-Volyn and Lithuanian principalities.

Reasons for winning the battle

Alexander Nevsky won a convincing victory in the Battle of the Ice. Moreover, he forced the Teutonic Order to sign a peace treaty on their own terms. In this agreement, he forever renounced any claims to the Russian lands. Since it was a question of a spiritual brotherhood that was also subordinate to the Pope, the Order could not violate such an agreement without problems for itself. That is, speaking even briefly about the results of the Battle of the Ice, including diplomatic ones, it should be noted that they were impressive. But back to the analysis of the battle.

Reasons for the victory:

1. Well chosen location. Alexander's warriors were lighter armed. Therefore, thin ice for them did not pose such a danger as for the knights clad in full armor, many of whom simply drowned. In addition, the Novgorodians knew these places better.
2. Good tactic. Alexander Nevsky was in complete control of the situation. He not only correctly disposed of the advantages of the place, but also studied the weaknesses in the usual style of fighting, which was repeatedly demonstrated by the Teutonic knights themselves, starting from the classic "pig" and ending with their dependence on horses and heavy weapons.
3. Underestimation of the Russians by the enemy. The Teutonic Order is used to success. By this time, Pskov and other lands had already been captured, and the knights did not meet with serious resistance. The largest of the conquered cities was taken by treachery.

The battle in question was of great cultural significance. In addition to Simonov's story, several films were shot based on him, including documentaries. This event was covered in many books, both fiction and biographical, dedicated to the personality of Alexander Nevsky. Many consider it extremely important that the victory took place during the onset of the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

The 10th century in densely populated - by medieval, of course, standards - Western Europe was marked by the beginning of expansion. In the future, from century to century, this expansion expanded, taking on a variety of forms.

The European peasant, bent under the burden of duties before the lord, dared to invade the recalcitrant forests. He cut down trees, cleared the land from the bushes and drained the swamps, obtaining additional arable land.

The Europeans pushed the Saracens (the Arabs who seized Spain), there was a Reconquista ("reconquest" of Spain).

Inspired by the lofty idea of ​​liberating the Holy Sepulcher and overwhelmed by a thirst for wealth and new lands, the crusaders stepped into the Levant - this is how the territories located along the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean were called in the Middle Ages.

The European "push to the east" began; peasants, skilled urban craftsmen, experienced traders, knights en masse appeared in the Slavic countries, for example, in Poland and the Czech Republic, began to settle and settle down there. This contributed to the rise of the economy, social and cultural life of the Eastern European countries, but at the same time gave rise to problems, creating rivalry and confrontation between the newcomers and the indigenous population. An especially large wave of immigrants poured out from the German lands, where the rulers of the German Empire (following the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa) supported the "onslaught on the East."

Soon, the eyes of the Europeans were riveted to the Baltic States. It was perceived as a forest desert, slightly inhabited by wild Letto-Lithuanian and Finno-Ugric pagan tribes who did not know the state power. Russia and the Scandinavian countries have been expanding here since ancient times. They colonized areas bordering on themselves. They imposed tribute on local tribes. Back in the days of Yaroslav the Wise, the Russians built their fortress Yuriev (named after the one given to Yaroslav the Wise at the baptism of the name of George) behind Lake Peipsi in the land of the Finno-Ugric Estonians. The Swedes moved into the possession of the Finns until they reached the borders of the Karelian land controlled by Novgorod.

At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, people from the west of Europe appeared in the Baltics. The first to arrive were the Catholic missionaries bearing the word of Christ. In 1184 the monk Maynard tried unsuccessfully to convert the Livs (the ancestors of modern Latvians) to Catholicism. Monk Berthold in 1198 preached Christianity with the help of the swords of the knights-crusaders. Canon Albert of Bremen, sent by the Pope, captured the mouth of the Dvina and founded Riga in 1201. A year later, on the Livonian lands conquered around Riga, the order of knight-monks was created. He called Order of the Swordsmen in the shape of a long cross, more like a sword. In 1215-1216, the swordsmen conquered Estonia. This was preceded by their struggle with the Russian and Lithuanian princes, as well as enmity with Denmark, which from the beginning of the 12th century claimed Estonia.

In 1212, the sword-bearers came close to the borders of the Pskov and Novgorod lands. Mstislav Udaloy, who reigned in Novgorod, successfully resisted them. Then, in the reign of father Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in Novgorod, the sword-bearers were defeated near Yuryev (modern Tartu). The city remained with the crusaders, subject to the payment of tribute to Novgorod (St. George's tribute). By 1219, Denmark had conquered Northern Estonia, but after 5 years the sword-bearers took it back to themselves.

The activity of the crusaders pushed the Lithuanian tribes (Lithuania, zhmud) to rally. They, the only Baltic peoples, began to form their own state.

In the land of the Baltic tribe of the Prussians, which was located near the Polish borderland, another order of the crusaders was founded - the Teutonic Order. Previously, he was in Palestine, but the Polish king invited the Teutons to the Baltic states, hoping for their help in the fight against the pagans of the Prussians. The Teutons soon began to seize Polish possessions as well. As for the Prussians, they were exterminated.

But defeat in 1234 from the father of Alexander Nevsky Yaroslav, and in 1236 - from the Lithuanians led to the reform of the Order of the Swordsmen. In 1237 it became a branch of the Teutonic Order, and they began to call it Livonian.

Batu's invasion gave rise to the crusaders' hope that the expansion could be expanded to the northern lands of the Orthodox, who in the West had long been considered heretics after the split of the churches in 1054. Especially attracted by Mr. Veliky Novgorod. But not only the crusaders were seduced by the Novgorod land. She was also interested in the Swedes.

Mr. Veliky Novgorod and Sweden fought more than once when their interests in the Baltic countries clashed. At the end of the 1230s, news was received in Novgorod that the son-in-law of the Swedish king Jarl (title of the Swedish nobility) Birger was preparing a raid on the Novgorod possessions. Prince in Novgorod then sat Alexander, the 19-year-old son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. He ordered the Izhorian elder Pelgusia to keep an eye on the coast and report the Swedish invasion. As a result, when the Scandinavian boats entered the Neva and stopped at the confluence of the Izhora River, Prince of Novgorod was notified in time. July 15, 1240 Alexander arrived at the Neva and with the forces of a small Novgorod detachment and his squad unexpectedly attacked the enemy.

Against the background of the devastation of northeastern Russia by the Mongol Khan Batu, this battle opened a difficult circle for his contemporaries: Alexander brought victory to Russia and, along with it, hope, faith in his own strength! This victory earned him the honorary title of Nevsky.

The belief that the Russians are capable of winning victories helped to withstand the difficult days of 1240, when a more dangerous enemy - the Livonian Order - invaded Novgorod. Ancient Izborsk fell. The Pskov traitors opened the gates for the enemy. The crusaders scattered across the Novgorod land and plundered in the vicinity of Novgorod. Not far from Novgorod, the crusaders built a fortified outpost, made raids near Luga and the Sabelny graveyard, which was located 40 versts from Novgorod.

Alexander was not in Novgorod. He fell out with the independent Novgorodians and left for Pereyaslavl Zalessky. Under the pressure of circumstances, the Novgorodians began to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav for help. The Novgorodians wanted to see Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Suzdal regiments. The Grand Duke Yaroslav sent another son, Andrey, with a cavalry detachment, but the Novgorodians stood their ground. In the end, Alexander arrived, led his Pereyaslavl squad and the Vladimir-Suzdal militia, which consisted mainly of peasants. Collected shelves and Novgorodians.

In 1241, the Russians launched an offensive, having recaptured Koporye from the crusaders. The fortress erected by the knights in Koporye was destroyed. In the winter of 1242, Alexander Nevsky unexpectedly appeared at Pskov and liberated the city.

Russian troops entered the borders of the Order, but soon their vanguard was defeated by the knights. Alexander took the regiments to the eastern shore of Lake Peipsi and decided to fight.

April 5, 1242 of the year a great slaughter took place on the melted ice. The Russians stood up as a traditional "eagle": in the center there was a regiment consisting of Vladimir-Suzdal militias, on the sides - regiments of the right and left hand - heavily armed Novgorod infantry and mounted princely squads. The peculiarity was that a significant mass of troops was located precisely on the flanks, usually the center was the strongest. Behind the back of the militia was a steep bank covered with boulders. On the ice in front of the shore, a sledge of a convoy was placed, fastened with chains. This made the coast completely impassable for knightly horses and was supposed to keep the faint-hearted in the Russian camp from fleeing. A horse squad stood in ambush at the island of Crow Stone.

The knights moved on the Russians "Boar's head". It was a special system that more than once brought success to the crusaders. In the center of the "boar's head" marched, closing ranks, infantrymen-bollards. On the sides and behind them, horsemen, clad in armor, rode in 2-3 rows, their horses also had shells. Ahead, narrowing at the edge, the ranks of the most experienced knights moved. The "boar's head", nicknamed the "pig" by the Russians, rammed the enemy and broke through the defenses. Knights with spears, battle axes, swords destroyed the enemy. When he was defeated, the infantrymen of the bollards were released, finishing off the wounded and fleeing.

The chronicle tale of the battle on the ice reports "the swiftness of the slaughter of evil, and the crackle from the spears, and the breaking, and the sound of the sword cut."

The knights crushed the Russian center and spun in place, breaking their own formation. They had nowhere to move. From the flanks, the "regiments of the right and left hand" pressed on the knights. As if with ticks they squeezed the "pig". On both sides, those who fought had many deaths. The ice was red with blood. The enemy suffered mainly from the infantry. It was difficult to kill the knight. But if he was pulled off his horse, then he became defenseless - the weight of the armor did not allow him to get up and move.

Suddenly the April ice cracked. The knights mingled. Those who fell into the water went like a stone to the bottom. The troops of Alexander Nevsky struck with renewed vigor. The crusaders fled. Russian horsemen pursued them for several kilometers.

The ice battle was won. The plan of the crusaders to establish themselves in Northern Russia failed.

In 1243, ambassadors of the Order arrived in Novgorod. Peace was signed. The crusaders recognized the inviolable borders of the Lord of Veliky Novgorod, promised to regularly pay tribute to Yuryev. The terms of the ransom of several dozen knights who were captured were negotiated. Alexander led these noble captives from Pskov to Novgorod beside their horses, barefoot, bareheaded, with a rope around their necks. It was impossible to think of a greater insult to the honor of knighthood.

In the future, military clashes took place more than once between Novgorod, Pskov and the Livonian Order, but the border of the possessions of both sides remained stable. For the possession of Yuryev, the Order continued to pay tribute to Novgorod, and from the end of the 15th century - to the Moscow united Russian state.

Politically and morally, the victories over the Swedes and the knights of the Livonian Order were very important: the scale of the Western European onslaught on the northwestern borders of Russia decreased. Alexander Nevsky's victories over the Swedes and the Crusaders interrupted a series of defeats for the Russian troops.

For the Orthodox Church, it was especially important to prevent Catholic influence on the Russian lands. It is worth remembering that the crusade of 1204 ended with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, the capital of the Orthodox Empire, which considered itself the Second Rome. For more than half a century, the Latin Empire existed on Byzantine territory. Greek Orthodox "huddled" in Nicaea, from where they tried to win back their possessions from the Western crusaders. The Tatars, on the contrary, were allies of the Orthodox Greeks in their struggle against the Islamic and Turkish onslaught on the eastern Byzantine borders. According to the practice that has developed since the 10th century, most of the higher hierarchs of the Russian Church were by origin Greek or South Slavs who came to Russia from Byzantium. The head of the Russian Church, the Metropolitan, was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Naturally, the interests of the universal Orthodox Church were above all for the leadership of the Russian Church. Catholics seemed far more dangerous than Tatars. It is no coincidence that before Sergius of Radonezh (second half of the 14th century), not a single prominent church hierarch blessed or called for the fight against the Tatars. The invasion of Batu and the Tatar rats were interpreted by the clergy as "the scourge of God", the punishment of the Orthodox for their sins.

It was the church tradition that created around the name of Alexander Nevsky, who was canonized after death, the halo of an ideal prince, warrior, “sufferer” (fighter) for the Russian land. This is how he entered the national mentality. In this case, Prince Alexander is in many ways a "brother" of Richard the Lionheart. The legendary "doubles" of both monarchs overshadowed their real historical images. In both cases, the "legend" is far removed from the original prototype.

In serious science, meanwhile, disputes about the role of Alexander Nevsky in Russian history do not subside. Alexander's position in relation to the Golden Horde, his participation in the organization of the Nevruyeva army of 1252 and the spread of the Horde yoke to Novgorod, the cruel reprisals even for that time, characteristic of Alexander in the fight against his opponents, cause conflicting judgments regarding the results of the activities of this undoubtedly bright hero of Russian history ...

For the Eurasians and L.N. Gumilyov Alexander is a far-sighted politician who correctly chose an alliance with the Horde, turned his back to the West.

For other historians (for example, IN Danilevsky), the role of Alexander in Russian history is rather negative. This role is the actual conductor of the Horde dependence.

Some historians, including S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky, does not at all consider the Horde yoke "a useful union for Russia," but notes that Russia did not have the strength to fight. Supporters of continuing the struggle with the Horde - Daniel Galitsky and Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, despite the nobility of their impulse, were doomed to defeat. Alexander Nevsky, on the contrary, was aware of the realities and was forced, as a politician, to seek a compromise with the Horde in the name of the survival of the Russian land.

All Russian chronicles to a directly posed question " And with whom did Alexander Nevsky fight in 1241-1242? " give us the answer - with "Germans" or, in a more modern version, "German knights".

Even later historians, from among the same chroniclers, already report that our Alexander Nevsky was at war with the Livonian knights from the Livonian Order!

But, this is what is characteristic of Russian historiography, its historians at all times try to present their opponents as an impersonal mass - a "crowd" without a name, rank or other identifying data.

So I write "GERMAN" they say, they came, plundered, killed, captured! Although the Germans often have nothing to do with it as a nation.

And if so, then let's not take anyone's word for it, but try to figure it out ourselves in this rather difficult issue.

The same story is present in the description of the "exploits" of the young Alexander Nevsky! Like, he fought with the Germans for Holy Russia, and Soviet historians also added the epithet "with German" knight-dogs "!

Therefore, I suggest the reader, nevertheless, delve into the question of the opponents of Alexander Nevsky.

Who are they? How were you organized? Who commanded them? How were they armed and with what methods did they fight?

And an exhaustive answer to this question will help us better understand why the troops of Novgorod the Great could not oppose anything to the "Germans" who had captured Izborsk, Pskov and a number of other small towns.

And then, having lost the battles of 1241 three times, these same Novgorod troops suddenly won a complete victory on Lake Peipsi in 1242?

And in search of an answer to the questions posed when turning to historical annals, we find that:

firstly, Alexander Nevsky and all his predecessors, in the positions of a mercenary Novgorod prince, fought not with the "Germans", but specifically with the knights "ORDER OF MERCHES"!

Reference: Brotherhood of Christ's Warriors(lat.Fratres militiæ Christi de Livonia), better known as the Order of the Swordsmen or the Order of the Brothers of the Sword, is a German Catholic spiritual-knightly order, founded in 1202 in Riga by Theodoric Toreida (Dietrich), who was replacing Bishop Albert von Buxgewden (Albert von Buxhöwden 1165-1229) (Theodoric was the brother of the bishop) for missionary work in Livonia.

The existence of the order was confirmed by the papal bull in 1210, but back in 1204 the formation of the "Brotherhood of Christ's soldiers" was approved by Pope Innocent III.

The common name of the Order comes from the image on their cloaks of a red sword with a Maltese cross.

In contrast to the large spiritual-knightly orders, the sword-bearers retained a nominal dependence on the bishop.

The order was guided by the charter of the Knights Templar.

The members of the order were divided into knights, priests and servants.

Knights most often came from families of small feudal lords (most often from Saxony).

Their uniform was a white cloak with a red cross and a sword..

Servants (squires, artisans, servants, messengers) were recruited from free people and townspeople.

The head of the order was the master, the most important affairs of the order were decided by the chapter.

The first master of the order was Wynno von Rohrbach (1202-1209), the second and last was Volquin von Winterstein (1209-1236).

In the occupied territories, swordsmen built castles. The castle was the center of the administrative unit - castelatura.

And if you look at the map of the territory of Livonia in the historical period of interest to us (1241 -1242), which belonged to the Order of the Swordsmen, then their possession covers just the present borders of Estonia and most of Latvia.

Moreover, the map clearly shows three autonomous territories for the Order of the Swordsmen - the Bishopric of Courland, the Bishopric of Dorpat and the Bishopric of Ezel.

So, 34 years have passed in the history of the order's missionary activities, and on February 9, 1236, Pope Gregory IX announced a Crusade against Lithuania to conquer Lithuania, in which he sent the knights of the Order of the Sword.

On September 22 of the same year, the Battle of Saul (now Siauliai) took place, which ended in the complete defeat of the sword-bearers. In it, the master of the order of the Volguin von Namburg (Volkwin von Winterstatten) was killed.

In connection with the great losses suffered by the Order of the Swordsmen among the knights and the death of the Master of the Order, on May 12, 1237 in Viterbo, Gregory IX and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Hermann von Salza performed the rite of joining the remnants of the Order of the Swordsmen to the Teutonic Order.

The Teutonic Order sent its knights there, and in this connection, an offshoot of the Teutonic Order on the lands of the former Order of the Swordsmen began to be called the "Livonian Land Mastership of the Teutonic Order"

Although the Livonian landmastership (the sources use the term "Teutonic Order in Livonia" enjoyed some autonomy, it was only part of a single Teutonic Order!

In Russian historiography, the incorrect name of the "Livonian Landmastership of the Teutonic Order" as an independent knightly order - "Livonian Order" (Here is a typical example http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CB%E8%E2%EE%ED% F1% EA% E8% E9_% EE% F0% E4% E5% ED)

As for the Order of the Swordsmen, the Pope and the German Kaiser were patrons and, at least in theory, its supreme leaders.

Formally, the Grandmaster of the Teutonic Order performed only control functions.

At first, this did not matter much, since until 1309 his place of permanent residence was in Venice, and even after moving to Marienburg, he did not greatly hamper his autonomy, since he rarely visited Livonia personally or sent representatives there to control.

Nevertheless, the grandmaster's power was immense, his advice was for a long time considered equal to the order and his instructions were obeyed unquestioningly.

But the landmasters of the Teutonic Order in Livonia from the period from 1241 to 1242 were two people:

Dietrich von Grüningen 1238-1241 and from 1242-1246 (secondary) and Andreas von Velben 1241-1242

Well, since we have new characters, then let me introduce them, probably for the first time in Russian literature describing the events associated with Alexander Nevsky and his battle on Lake Peipsi!

Dietrich von Grüningen, also known as Dietrich Groningen (1210, Thuringia - September 3, 1259) - Landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Germany (1254-1256), Prussia (1246-1259) and Livonia (1238-1242 and 1244-1246). He founded several castles in present-day Latvia, spreading Catholicism to the pagan tribes of the Baltic states.

Biography

His ancestors were Landgraves of Thuringia. Having entered the Order of the Swordsmen, already in 1237 he was noticed by the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Hermann von Salzey and applied for the post of Landmaster in Livonia. However, he could not take such an important post immediately because of his age (27 years) and a short service in the order (from 1234).

In 1238, he replaced Hermann von Balck (as "acting") in this position, he was in power in Livonia for more than ten years (in some sources even up to 1251).

In 1240 he began active hostilities on the territory of the Curonians. This is evidenced by the "Livonian Chronicle" by Hermann Wartberg:

In the year of the Lord in 1240, brother Dietrich Groningen, replacing the post of master, conquered Courland again, built two castles in it Goldingen (Kuldiga) and Amboten (Embute), and prompted the Kurons to receive holy baptism by kindness and strength, for which he received from the legate of the Pope The Right Reverend Wilhelm and then from the Most Holy Pope Innocent the approval of the right to own two-thirds of Courland, so that the previous treaty concluded about Courland with the brothers of knighthood, or any other, was no longer valid in comparison with this.

He also concluded a condition with the Most Reverend Bishop of Ezel about the lands of Svorve and Kotse, further that the village of Legals should half belong to the brothers.

In addition, he founded the Latvian castle Dundaga. In honor of this event, a full-length sculpture by Dietrich von Grüningen stands at the entrance to the castle.

His presence within Livonia was inconstant.

In 1240, he began hostilities against the Novgorod Republic, but he himself went to Venice to elect the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order instead of Hermann von Salza.

On April 7, 1240, he was in Margentheim, surrounded by the chosen Grand Master Konrad Thuringian.

Despite the fact that he was the Livonian landmeister during the Battle of the Ice, he did not take part in it, since he was with the order troops operating against the Curonians and Lithuanians in Courland.

A very important fact! It turns out that Alexander Nevsky and his troops fought only with a part of the Teutonic knights of the Livonian landmastership.

And the main forces, led by Ladmeister, fought in a completely different sector.

The troops of the order in the "Battle of the Ice" were commanded by Andreas von Felben, vice-land master of the order in Livonia.

Andreas von Velben(Felfen) (born in Styria, Austria) - Vice-Landmaster of the Livonian Department of the Teutonic Order, known for commanding knights during the famous "Battle on the Ice".

It is also known about him that being in the position of landmaster of the order in Prussia in 1246, together with a military detachment of the German city of Lübeck, he made a campaign in the Sambian lands.

And in 1255, during the campaign of the Czech king Ottokar II Přemysl to Prussia, he joined the main army near the mouth of the Vistula.

During his command of the brothers of the order in Prussia, most of the vice-landmasters (deputies) were in his subordination due to the fact that at almost the same time Dietrich von Grüningen was the landmaster of all three "large" parts of the order.

But he himself did not personally fight on Lake Peipsi, entrusting the command to the commanders, he preferred to be at a safe distance, therefore he was not captured.

Another important fact! It turns out that the Teutonic knights, before entering the battle with the united Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal armies, did not have a single commander !!!

In the life of Alexander Nevsky, he appears under the name "Andreyash".

But, be that as it may, namely the Teutonic knights, who were part of the "Livonian Landmeister of the Teutonic Order" under the leadership of the two aforementioned LADMEISTERS at the end of August 1240, having gathered part of their forces and enlisted the support of the papal curia, invaded the Pskov lands, and first captured the city of Izborsk ...

The attempt of the Pskov-Novgorod militia to recapture the fortress ended in failure.

Then the knights besieged the city of Pskov itself and soon took it, taking advantage of the uprising among the besieged.

Two German vogts were planted in the city.

(In Western Europe - a vassal of a bishop, a secular official in the church estates, endowed with judicial, administrative and fiscal functions (steward of church lands).

At the same time, at the beginning of 1241, Alexander Nevsky returned to Novgorod with his retinue, once again invited to VECHE as a Novgorod prince, after which, commanding the Novgorod troops, he liberated Koporye.

After that, he returned to Novgorod, where he spent the winter, waiting for the arrival of reinforcements from Vladimir.

In March, the combined army (the Novgorod militia and several regiments of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality under the command of Prince Andrei Yaroslavovich, liberated the city of Pskov.

It ended in the defeat of the knights. The order was forced to conclude a peace, according to which the crusaders abandoned the captured Russian lands.

But this general description of the course of hostilities has long been known and understood by everyone.

At the same time, until now, and especially in Russian historiography, no attention has been paid to the study of the tactical features of the conduct of war both by A. Nevsky and with the Teutonic knights in the period from 1241 to 1242.

The only exception here is the small work of A.N. Kirpichnikov.

"Battle on the Ice. Tactical features, formation and number of troops"published in the Zeighaus magazine N6 1997.

And now, which is quite fair and true, this author writes on the issues of interest to us.

"In the chronicle description of the Battle on the Ice, the main feature of the Livonian army is noted.

(THIS IS A TYPICAL BUT WRONG SCHEME OF BUILDING Wax Teutonic Knights!)

It entered the battle built in the form of a "pig".

Historians considered the "pig" to be a kind of wedge-shaped formation of the army - a sharp column.

The Russian term in this respect was an exact translation of the German Schweinkopfn from the Latin caput porci.

In turn, the mentioned term is related to the concept of wedge, edge, cuneus, acies.

The last two terms have been used in sources since Roman times.11 But they cannot always be interpreted figuratively.

This was often the name of individual military detachments, regardless of the method of their formation.

For all that, the very name of such units hints at their peculiar configuration.

Indeed, the wedge-shaped structure is not a product of the theoretical fantasy of ancient writers.

Such a construction was actually used in combat practice in the 13th-15th centuries. in Central Europe, and fell out of use only at the end of the 16th century.

On the basis of preserved written sources that have not yet attracted the attention of Russian historians, the construction of a wedge (in the chronicle text - "pig") lends itself to reconstruction in the form of a deep column with a triangular crown.

This construction is confirmed by a unique document - military instruction - " Getting ready for the hike, " written in 1477 for one of the Brandenburg military leaders.

It lists three Banner divisions.

Their names are typical - "Hound", "St. George" and "Great". Banners numbered respectively 400, 500 and 700 mounted warriors.

At the head of each detachment, a standard bearer and selected knights were concentrated, located in 5 ranks.

In the first rank, depending on the number of banners, there were from 3 to 7-9 mounted knights, in the last - from 11 to 17.

The total number of wedge warriors ranged from 35 to 65 people.

The ranks were lined up so that each subsequent one on its flanks increased by two knights.

Thus, the extreme warriors in relation to each other were placed as if on a ledge and guarded the one riding in front from one of the sides. This was the tactical feature of the wedge - it was adapted for an assembled frontal strike and at the same time was difficult to vulnerable from the flanks.

The second, columnar part of the banner, according to "Preparation for the campaign", consisted of a quadrangular structure that included bollards.

(cf .: German Knecht "servant, worker; slave". -author)

The number of bollards in each of the three above-mentioned detachments was 365, 442 and 629 (or 645), respectively.

They were located in a depth of 33 to 43 ranks, each of which contained from 11 to 17 cavalry.

Among the bollards there were servants who were part of the knight's combat retinue: usually an archer or a crossbowman and a squire.

All together they formed the lowest military unit - "spear" - numbering 35 people, rarely more.

During the battle, these warriors, equipped no worse than a knight, came to the aid of their master, changed his horse.

The advantages of the columnar-wedge-shaped banner include its cohesion, flank coverage of the wedge, the ramming force of the first strike, and precise controllability.

The formation of such a banner was convenient both for movement and for starting a battle.

The tightly closed ranks of the detachment's head did not have to turn around to defend their flanks in contact with the enemy.

The wedge of the advancing army made a frightening impression, it could cause confusion in the ranks of the enemy at the first onslaught. The wedge detachment was designed to break the formation of the opposing side and a quick victory.

The described system also had disadvantages.

In the course of the battle, if it dragged on, the best forces - the knights - could be the first to be incapacitated.

As for the bollards, during the battle of the knights they were in a wait-and-see passive state and had little effect on the result of the battle.

A wedge-shaped column, judging by one of the battles of the 15th century. (1450 under Pillenreith), closed the rank of knights, since the knights, apparently, were not very reliable.

The weak and strong sides of the pointed column, however, are difficult to judge by the lack of material. In different regions of Europe, it obviously differed in its features and weapons.

Let's touch on the question of the number of wedge-shaped columns.

(impeccable but erroneous Russian diagram)

According to the "Preparations for the campaign" in 1477, such a column consisted of 400 to 700 horsemen.

But the number of tactical units of that time, as you know, was not constant, and in combat practice even the 1st floor. XV century was distinguished by a great variety.

For example, according to J. Dlugosh, the seven Teutonic banners that fought at Grunwald in 1410 had 570 copies, that is, each banner had 82 spears, which, taking into account the knight and his retinue, corresponded to 246 combatants.

According to other data, in the five banners of the Order in 1410, when the salary was paid, there were from 157 to 359 copies and from 4 to 30 riflemen.

Later, in one clash in 1433, the Bavarian detachment - the "pig" consisted of 200 soldiers: in its head unit in three ranks there were 3, 5 and 7 knights.

Under Pillenreith (1450), the wedge column numbered 400 mounted knights and bollards.

All the above data indicate that the knightly detachment of the 15th century. could reach one thousand horsemen, but more often included several hundred combatants.

In the military episodes of the XIV century. the number of knights of the detachment, in comparison with a later time, was even smaller - from 20 to 80 (excluding the bollards).

For example, in 1331, there were 350 cavalry soldiers in five Prussian banners, that is, 70 in each banner (or about 20 copies).

We also have the opportunity to more specifically determine the size of the Livonian combat detachment of the 13th century.

In 1268, in the battle of Rakovor, as the chronicle mentions, the German "iron regiment, the great pig" marched.

According to the Rhymed Chronicle, 34 knights and militia took part in the battle.

This number of knights, if we supplement it with a commander, will amount to 35 people, which exactly corresponds to the composition of the knightly wedge of one of the detachments noted in the above-mentioned "Preparation for the campaign" in 1477 (true for the "Hound" of the banner, not the "Great").

In the same "Preparation for the campaign" the number of bollards of such a banner is given - 365 people.

Taking into account the fact that the numbers of the warheads of the detachments according to the data of 1477 and 1268. practically coincided, it can be assumed without the risk of a big mistake that, in terms of their overall numerical composition, these divisions also approached each other.

In this case, to a certain extent, we can judge the usual size of the German wedge-shaped banners that took part in the Livonian-Russian wars of the 13th century.

As for the German detachment in the battle of 1242, it was hardly superior in composition to the Rakhorian "great pig".

From here we can draw our first conclusions:

The total number of Teutonic knights who took part in the Battle of the Ice was from 34 to 50 people and knights 365-400 people!

There was also a separate detachment from the city of Dorpat, but nothing is known about its number.

During the period under review, the Teutonic Order, distracted by the struggle in Courland, could not send a large army. But the knights already had losses near Izborsk, Pskov and Kloporye!

Although other Russian scientists insist that the German army consisted of 1,500 cavalry soldiers (20 knights were also included), 2-3,000 knechts and militias of Estonians and Chudi.

And the army of A. Nevsky is the same Russian historians, for some reason they estimate only 4-5000 soldiers and 800-1000 mounted warriors.

And why the regiments brought from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality by Prince Andrey are not taken into account ?!

The Battle on the Ice on Lake Peipsi took place on April 5, 1242. It became known as one of the most important victories in the history of the country. The date of this battle put an end to the claims of the Livonian Order to the Russian lands. But, as often happens, many facts related to an event that occurred in the distant past are controversial for modern scientists. And the reliability of most of the sources can be questioned. As a result, modern historians do not know the exact number of troops involved in the battle. This information is not found in the Life of Alexander Nevsky or in the annals. Presumably, the number of Russian soldiers who took part in the battle is 15 thousand, the Livonian knights brought with them about 12 thousand soldiers, mostly militias.

The choice of the ice of Lake Peipsi (near the Crow Stone) as a place for Alexander's battle was of great importance. First of all, the position taken by the soldiers of the young prince made it possible to block the approaches to Novgorod. Surely, Alexander Nevsky also remembered that heavy knights are more vulnerable in winter conditions. So, the Battle on the Ice can be briefly described as follows.

The Livonian knights formed a well-known battle wedge. Heavy knights are stationed on the flanks, and warriors with light weapons are inside this wedge. Russian chronicles call such a construction "the great pig." But, about what kind of construction Alexander Nevsky chose, modern historians do not know anything. It could well have been a "regiment row" traditional for Russian squads. The knights decided to attack on the open ice, even without having accurate data on either the number or the location of the enemy's troops.

The scheme of the Battle on the Ice is absent in the chronicle sources that have come down to us. But, it is quite possible to reconstruct it. The knight's wedge attacked the guard regiment and moved on, quite easily breaking through its resistance. However, the attackers encountered many unexpected obstacles along the way. It can be assumed that this success of the knights was prepared in advance by Alexander Nevsky.

The wedge was caught in pincers and almost completely lost its maneuverability. The attack of the ambush regiment finally tipped the scales on Alexander's side. The knights, clad in heavy armor, were completely helpless, dragged from their horses. Those who were able to escape after the battle, the Novgorodians pursued, according to the chronicles, "to the Falcon Coast."

Alexander won the Battle of the Ice, which forced the Livonian Order to conclude peace and renounce all territorial claims. The warriors captured in battle were returned by both sides.

It should be noted that the battle on Lake Peipsi is unique in its own way. For the first time in history, a foot army was able to defeat a heavily armed cavalry. Of course, weather conditions, terrain relief, and surprise played an important role.

Thanks to the victory of Alexander Nevsky, the threat of the seizure of the northwestern Russian territories by the Order was eliminated. Also, this allowed the Novgorodians to maintain trade ties with Europe.

Prince of Novgorod (1236-1240, 1241-1252 and 1257-1259), and later the Grand Duke of Kiev (1249-1263), and then Vladimirsky (1252-1263), Alexander Yaroslavich, known in our historical memory as Alexander Nevsky, - one of the most popular heroes of the history of Ancient Russia. Only Dmitry Donskoy and Ivan the Terrible can compete with him. An important role in this was played by Sergei Eisenstein's brilliant film "Alexander Nevsky", which turned out to be consonant with the events of the 40s of the last century, and recently also the "Name of Russia" competition, in which the prince won a posthumous victory over other heroes of Russian history.

The glorification of Alexander Yaroslavich as a blessed prince by the Russian Orthodox Church is also important. Meanwhile, the nationwide veneration of Alexander Nevsky as a hero began only after the Great Patriotic War. Before that, even professional historians paid much less attention to it. For example, pre-revolutionary general courses on Russian history often do not mention the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice at all.

Now a critical and even neutral attitude towards the hero and the saint is perceived by many in society (both in professional circles and among history buffs) very painfully. Nevertheless, active controversy continues among historians. The situation is complicated not only by the subjectivity of the views of each scientist, but also by the extreme complexity of working with medieval sources.

All information in them can be divided into repetitive (quotes and paraphrases), unique and verifiable. Accordingly, you need to trust these three types of information to varying degrees. Among other things, professionals sometimes call the period from about the middle of the XIII to the middle of the XIV century "dark" precisely because of the scarcity of the source base.

In this article, we will try to consider how historians assess the events associated with Alexander Nevsky, and what, in their opinion, his role in history. Without going too deep into the argumentation of the parties, we will nevertheless present the main conclusions. Here and there, for convenience, we will divide part of our text about each major event into two sections: “for” and “against”. In fact, of course, on each specific issue, the range of opinions is much greater.

Battle of the Neva

The battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240 at the mouth of the Neva River between a Swedish landing (the Swedish detachment also included a small group of Norwegians and warriors of the Finnish Emi tribe) and the Novgorod-Ladoga squad in alliance with the local Izhora tribe. Assessments of this collision, like the Battle on the Ice, depend on the interpretation of the data from the Novgorod First Chronicle and the Life of Alexander Nevsky. Many researchers treat the information in the life with great distrust. Scientists also disagree on the dating of this work, on which the reconstruction of events strongly depends.

Per
The Battle of the Neva is a fairly large battle of great importance. Some historians even talked about an attempt to blockade Novgorod economically and close the exit to the Baltic. The Swedes were led by the son-in-law of the Swedish king, the future Jarl Birger and / or his cousin Jarl Ulf Fasi. A sudden and quick attack by the Novgorod squad and Izhora soldiers on the Swedish detachment prevented the creation of a strong point on the banks of the Neva, and, possibly, a subsequent attack on Ladoga and Novgorod. It was a turning point in the fight against the Swedes.

Six soldiers of Novgorod distinguished themselves in the battle, whose exploits are described in the "Life of Alexander Nevsky" (there are even attempts to connect these heroes with specific people known from other Russian sources). During the battle, the young prince Alexander "put a seal on his face," that is, he wounded the general of the Swedes in the face. For the victory in this battle, Alexander Yaroslavich subsequently received the nickname "Nevsky".

Against
The scale and significance of this battle is clearly exaggerated. There could be no question of a blockade. The skirmish was clearly petty, since, according to the sources, 20 or fewer people died in it from the Rus side. True, we can only talk about noble warriors, but this hypothetical assumption is unprovable. Swedish sources do not mention the Battle of the Neva at all.

It is characteristic that the first large Swedish chronicle - "The Chronicle of Eric", which was written much later than these events, mentioning many Swedish-Novgorod conflicts, in particular the destruction of the Swedish capital Sigtuna in 1187 by the Karelians, incited by the Novgorodians, is silent about this event.

Naturally, there was no talk of an attack on Ladoga or Novgorod either. It is impossible to say exactly who led the Swedes, but Magnus Birger, apparently, was in a different place during this battle. It is difficult to call the actions of the Russian soldiers swift. The exact place of the battle is unknown, but it was located on the territory of modern St. Petersburg, and from it to Novgorod 200 km in a straight line, and it takes longer to go over rough terrain. But it was still necessary to gather the Novgorod squad and somewhere to unite with the Ladoga residents. This would have taken at least a month.

It is strange that the Swedish camp was poorly fortified. Most likely, the Swedes were not going to go deep into the territory, but to baptize the local population, for which they had priests. This is what determines the great attention paid to the description of this battle in the Life of Alexander Nevsky. The story about the Battle of the Neva in his life is twice as long as about the Battle of the Ice.

For the author of the life, whose task is not to describe the feats of the prince, but to show his piety, it is, first of all, not about military, but about spiritual victory. It is hardly possible to speak of this clash as a turning point if the struggle between Novgorod and Sweden continued for a very long time.

In 1256, the Swedes again tried to gain a foothold on the coast. In 1300, they managed to build the Landskronu fortress on the Neva, but a year later they left it due to the constant raids of the enemy and the difficult climate. The confrontation took place not only on the banks of the Neva, but also on the territory of Finland and Karelia. Suffice it to recall the winter Finnish campaign of Alexander Yaroslavich 1256-1257. and campaigns against the Finns of Jarl Birger. Thus, at best, we can talk about the stabilization of the situation for several years.

The description of the battle as a whole in the chronicle and in the Life of Alexander Nevsky should not be taken literally, since it is full of quotations from other texts: The Jewish War by Joseph Flavius, Eugene's Deeds, Trojan Tales, etc. As for the duel between Prince Alexander and the leader of the Swedes, there is practically the same episode with a wound in the face in the Life of Prince Dovmont, so this plot is most likely a rolling one.

Some scholars believe that the life of the Pskov prince Dovmont was written earlier than the life of Alexander and, accordingly, the borrowing occurred from there. The role of Alexander is also unclear in the scene of the death of a part of the Swedes on the other side of the river - where the prince's squad was "impassable".

Perhaps the enemy was destroyed by Izhora. The sources speak of the death of the Swedes from the angels of the Lord, which is very reminiscent of the episode from the Old Testament (19th chapter of the Fourth Book of Kings) about the destruction of the Assyrian army of King Sennacherib by the angel.

The name "Nevsky" appears only in the 15th century. More importantly, there is a text in which the two sons of Prince Alexander are also called "Nevsky". Perhaps these were proprietary nicknames, that is, the family owned land in the area. In sources close in time to the events, Prince Alexander bears the nickname "Brave".

Russian-Livonian conflict 1240 - 1242 and the Battle of the Ice

The famous battle, known to us as the Battle of the Ice, took place in 1242. In it, the troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky and the German knights with the Estonians (Chud) subordinate to them met on the ice of Lake Peipsi. There are more sources for this battle than for the Battle of the Neva: several Russian chronicles, the Life of Alexander Nevsky and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, reflecting the position of the Teutonic Order.

Per
In the 40s of the XIII century, the papacy organized a crusade to the Baltic states, in which Sweden (the Battle of the Neva), Denmark and the Teutonic Order took part. During this campaign in 1240, the Germans captured the fortress of Izborsk, and then on September 16, 1240 the Pskov army was defeated there. Perished, according to the chronicles, from 600 to 800 people. Then Pskov was besieged, which soon capitulated.

As a result, the Pskov political group headed by Tverdila Ivankovich is subordinate to the Order. The Germans are rebuilding the Koporye fortress, making a raid on the Vodskaya land, controlled by Novgorod. The Novgorod boyars ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to return to them the reign of the young Alexander Yaroslavich, who was expelled by "lesser people" for reasons unknown to us.

Prince Yaroslav first offers them his other son Andrey, but they prefer to return Alexander. In 1241, Alexander, apparently with an army of Novgorodians, Ladozhians, Izhor and Karelians, conquered Novgorod territories and took Koporye by storm. In March 1242, Alexander with a large army, including the Suzdal regiments brought by his brother Andrey, expelled the Germans from Pskov. Then the fighting is transferred to the enemy's territory in Livonia.

The Germans defeat the advance detachment of Novgorodians under the command of Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet. Alexander's main troops retreat to the ice of Lake Peipsi. There, on Uzmen, at the Crow Stone (the exact place is not known to scientists, there are discussions) on April 5, 1242, and a battle takes place.

The number of troops of Alexander Yaroslavich is at least 10,000 people (3 regiments - Novgorod, Pskov and Suzdal). The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle suggests that there were fewer Germans than Russians. True, the text uses rhetorical hyperbole, that there were 60 times fewer Germans.

Apparently, the Russians carried out an encirclement maneuver, and the Order was defeated. German sources report that 20 knights were killed, and 6 were taken prisoner, and Russian sources tell about the losses of the Germans in 400-500 people and about 50 prisoners. Chudi died "innumerable". The Battle on the Ice was a major battle that significantly influenced the political situation. In Soviet historiography, it was even customary to speak of "the largest battle of the early Middle Ages."

Against
The version of a general crusade is doubtful. At that time, the West did not have sufficient forces or a common strategy, which is confirmed by the significant time difference between the actions of the Swedes and the Germans. In addition, the territory, which historians conditionally call the Livonian Confederation, was not united. Here were the lands of the archbishoprics of Riga and Dorpat, the possession of the Danes and the Order of the Swordsmen (from 1237 the Livonian Land Mastership of the Teutonic Order). All these forces were in a very difficult, often conflicting relationship with each other.

The knights of the order, by the way, received only a third of the lands they conquered, and the rest went to the church. Difficult relations were also within the order between the former swordsmen and the Teutonic knights who came to them for reinforcement. The policy of the Teutons and the former swordsmen in the Russian direction was different. So, having learned about the beginning of the war with the Russians, the head of the Teutonic Order in Prussia Hanrik von Wind, dissatisfied with these actions, removed the Landmaster of Livonia Andreas von Wölven from power. The new landmaster of Livonia, Dietrich von Groeningen, after the Battle of the Ice, made peace with the Russians, freeing all the occupied lands and exchanging prisoners.

In such a situation, there could be no talk of any united "Onslaught on the East". Collision 1240-1242 - This is a common struggle for spheres of influence, which either escalated or subsided. Among other things, the conflict between Novgorod and the Germans is directly related to the Pskov-Novgorod policy, first of all, with the history of the expulsion of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who found refuge with the Dorpat Bishop German and tried to regain the throne with his help.

The scale of the events seems to be somewhat exaggerated by some modern scholars. Alexander acted carefully so as not to completely ruin relations with Livonia. So, taking Koporye, he executed only the Estonians and the leaders, and released the Germans. The capture of Pskov by Alexander is in fact the expulsion of two knights of the Vogt (that is, judges) with a retinue (hardly more than 30 people) who were sitting there under an agreement with the Pskovites. By the way, some historians believe that this agreement was actually concluded against Novgorod.

In general, Pskov's relations with the Germans were less conflicting than those of Novgorod. For example, the people of Pskov participated in the Battle of Siauliai against the Lithuanians in 1236 on the side of the Order of the Swordsmen. In addition, Pskov often suffered from the German-Novgorod border conflicts, since the German troops sent against Novgorod often did not reach the Novgorod lands and plundered the closer Pskov possessions.

The "Battle on the Ice" itself took place not on the lands of the Order, but of the Dorpat Archbishop, so that most of the troops, most likely, consisted of his vassals. There is reason to believe that a significant part of the Order's troops were simultaneously preparing for war with the Semigallians and Curonians. In addition, it is usually not customary to mention that Alexander sent his troops to "disperse" and "heal", that is, in modern terms, to plunder the local population. The main method of waging a medieval war is to inflict maximum economic damage on the enemy and seize loot. It was in the "dispersal" that the advance detachment of the Russians was defeated by the Germans.

The exact details of the battle are difficult to reconstruct. Many modern historians believe that the German army did not exceed 2,000 people. Some historians speak of only 35 knights and 500 foot soldiers. The Russian army may have been somewhat larger, but hardly significantly. The "Livonian Rhymed Chronicle" only reports that the Germans used the "pig", that is, the formation in a wedge, and that the "pig" broke through the ranks of the Russians, who had many archers. The knights fought bravely, but they were defeated, and some of the Dorpat people fled to escape.

As for the losses, the only explanation why the data of the chronicles and the "Livonian Rhymed Chronicle" differ is the assumption that the Germans considered only losses among the full knights of the Order, and the Russians - the total losses of all Germans. Most likely, here, as in other medieval texts, the reports on the death toll are very conditional.

Even the exact date of the Battle of the Ice is unknown. The Novgorod Chronicle gives the date of April 5, Pskov - April 1, 1242. And whether it was "ice" is unclear. In the "Livonian Rhymed Chronicle" there are the words: "On both sides, the dead fell on the grass." The political and military significance of the "Battle on the Ice" is also exaggerated, especially in comparison with the larger battles of Siauliai (1236) and Rakovor (1268).

Alexander Nevsky and the Pope

One of the key episodes in the biography of Alexander Yaroslavich is his contacts with Pope Innocent IV. Information about this is in two bulls of Innocent IV and "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The first bull is dated January 22, 1248, the second - September 15, 1248.

Many believe that the fact of the prince's contacts with the Roman curia is very harmful to his image of an implacable defender of Orthodoxy. Therefore, some researchers even tried to find other addressees for the Pope's messages. They offered either Yaroslav Vladimirovich, an ally of the Germans in the war of 1240 against Novgorod, or the Lithuanian Tovtivil, who reigned in Polotsk. However, most researchers consider these versions to be unfounded.

What was written in these two documents? In the first message, the Pope asked Alexander to inform him through the brothers of the Teutonic Order in Livonia about the Tatars' offensive in order to prepare for a rebuff. In the second bull to Alexander, "the Most Serene Prince of Novgorod," the Pope mentions that his addressee agreed to join the true faith and even allowed to build a cathedral in Pleskov, that is, in Pskov, and, possibly, even establish an episcopal see.

No reply letters have survived. But from the "Life of Alexander Nevsky" it is known that two cardinals came to the prince to persuade him to convert to Catholicism, but received a categorical refusal. However, apparently, for some time Alexander Yaroslavich maneuvered between the West and the Horde.

What influenced his final decision? It is impossible to answer exactly, but the explanation of the historian A.A.Gorsky seems interesting. The fact is that, most likely, the second letter from the Pope did not find Alexander; at that moment he was on his way to Karakorum - the capital of the Mongol Empire. The prince spent two years on the trip (1247 - 1249) and saw the might of the Mongol state.

When he returned, he learned that Daniel Galitsky, who received the royal crown from the Pope, never received the promised help from the Catholics against the Mongols. In the same year, the Catholic Swedish ruler Jarl Birger began the conquest of Central Finland - the lands of the tribal union of Eme, which was previously part of the sphere of influence of Novgorod. And, finally, the mention of the Catholic cathedral in Pskov should have caused unpleasant memories of the conflict of 1240-1242.

Alexander Nevsky and the Horde

The most painful moment in discussing the life of Alexander Nevsky is his relationship with the Horde. Alexander did travel to Sarai (1247, 1252, 1258 and 1262) and Karakorum (1247-1249). Some hotheads declare him to be almost a collaborationist, a traitor to the fatherland and motherland. But, firstly, such a formulation of the question is an obvious anachronism, since such concepts did not even exist in the ancient Russian language of the 13th century. Secondly, all the princes traveled to the Horde for labels for reign or for other reasons, even Daniil Galitsky, who had shown direct resistance to her the longest.

The Horde, as a rule, accepted them with honor, although the chronicle of Daniel Galitsky stipulates that "Tatar honor is more evil than evil." The princes had to observe certain rituals, go through the kindled fires, drink koumiss, worship the image of Genghis Khan - that is, do what defiled a person according to the concepts of a Christian of that time. Most of the princes and, apparently, Alexander too, obeyed these requirements.

Only one exception is known: Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, who in 1246 refused to obey, and was killed for this (canonized by the rite of martyrs at a council in 1547). In general, the events in Russia, starting from the 40s of the XIII century, cannot be viewed in isolation from the political situation in the Horde.

One of the most dramatic episodes of Russian-Horde relations took place in 1252. The course of events was as follows. Alexander Yaroslavich goes to Sarai, after which Baty sends an army led by the commander Nevryuy ("Nevryuev's army") against Andrey Yaroslavich, Prince Vladimir, Alexander's brother. Andrey flees from Vladimir to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where their younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich rules.

The princes manage to escape from the Tatars, but Yaroslav's wife dies, the children are captured, and "countless" ordinary people are killed. After the departure of Nevryuya, Alexander returns to Russia and sits on the throne in Vladimir. There are still discussions about whether Alexander was involved in Nevryuya's campaign.

Per
The harshest assessment of these events from the English historian Fennel: "Alexander betrayed his brothers." Many historians believe that Alexander specially went to the Horde to complain to the khan about Andrey, especially since such cases are known at a later time. Complaints could be as follows: Andrei, the younger brother, unjustly received the great reign of Vladimir, taking his father's cities, which should belong to the eldest of the brothers; he does not pay extra tribute.

The subtlety here was that Alexander Yaroslavich, being the Grand Duke of Kiev, formally possessed more power than the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrey, but in fact Kiev, ruined in the 12th century by Andrei Bogolyubsky, and then by the Mongols, by that time had lost its significance , and therefore Alexander was in Novgorod. This distribution of power was consistent with the Mongol tradition, according to which the younger brother gets the property of the father, and the older brothers conquer the lands for themselves. As a result, the conflict between the brothers was resolved in such a dramatic way.

Against
There are no direct indications of Alexander's complaint in the sources. An exception is Tatishchev's text. But recent research has shown that this historian did not use, as previously thought, unknown sources; he did not distinguish between the retelling of the chronicles and his comments. The statement of the complaint appears to be a commentary by the writer. The analogies with later times are incomplete, since later the princes, who successfully complained to the Horde, themselves participated in punitive campaigns.

The historian A. A. Gorsky offers the following version of events. Apparently, Andrei Yaroslavich, relying on the shortcut to Vladimir reign, received in 1249 in Karakorum from the hostile Sarai khansha Ogul-Gamish, tried to behave independently of Batu. But in 1251 the situation changed.

Khan Munke (Mengu) comes to power in Karakorum with the support of Batu. Apparently, Batu decides to redistribute power in Russia and summons the princes to his capital. Alexander is going, but Andrey is not. Then Batu sends the army of Nevryuya against Andrey and at the same time the army of Kuremsa against his father-in-law, the rebellious Daniel Galitsky. However, for the final resolution of this controversial issue, as usual, there are not enough sources.

In 1256-1257, a population census was carried out throughout the Great Mongol Empire in order to streamline taxation, but it was disrupted in Novgorod. By 1259, Alexander Nevsky suppressed the Novgorod uprising (for which some in this city still dislike him; for example, the outstanding historian and leader of the Novgorod archaeological expedition V.L. Yanin spoke out very harshly about him). The prince provided for the census and the payment of the "exit" (as the sources call the tribute to the Horde).

As you can see, Alexander Yaroslavich was very loyal to the Horde, but then it was the policy of almost all the princes. In a difficult situation, they had to make compromises with the irresistible power of the Great Mongol Empire, about which the papal legate Plano Carpini, who visited Karakorum, noted that only God could defeat them.

Canonization of Alexander Nevsky

Prince Alexander was canonized at the Moscow Cathedral in 1547 in the guise of the faithful.
Why did he become revered as a saint? There are different opinions on this matter. So F.B. Schenck, who wrote a fundamental study on the change in the image of Alexander Nevsky in time, asserts: "Alexander became the founder of a special type of Orthodox holy princes who deserved their position, first of all, by secular acts for the benefit of the community ...".

Many researchers put the military successes of the prince at the forefront and believe that he was revered as a saint who defended the "Russian land". The interpretation of I.N. Danilevsky: “In the face of terrible trials that befell Orthodox lands, Alexander is almost the only secular ruler who did not doubt his spiritual righteousness, did not hesitate in his faith, did not give up his God. Refusing to joint actions with Catholics against the Horde, he suddenly becomes the last powerful stronghold of Orthodoxy, the last defender of the entire Orthodox world.

Could the Orthodox Church refuse to recognize such a ruler as a saint? Apparently, therefore, he was canonized not as a righteous man, but as a faithful (listen to this word!) Prince. The victories of his direct heirs in the political arena consolidated and developed this image. And the people understood and accepted this, forgiving the real Alexander all the cruelties and injustices. "

And, finally, there is the opinion of AE Musin, a researcher with two backgrounds, historical and theological. He denies the importance of the prince's "anti-Latin" policy, fidelity to the Orthodox faith and social activity in his canonization, and tries to understand what qualities of Alexander's personality and peculiarities of life caused him to be worshiped by the people of medieval Russia; it began much earlier than the official canonization.

It is known that by 1380 the veneration of the prince had already taken shape in Vladimir. The main thing that, according to the scientist, was appreciated by his contemporaries is "a combination of the courage of a Christian warrior and the sobriety of a Christian monk." Another important factor was the very strangeness of his life and death. Alexander could have died of illness in 1230 or 1251, but recovered. He was not supposed to become a Grand Duke, since he originally occupied the second place in the family hierarchy, but his older brother Theodore died at thirteen years old. Nevsky died strangely, having taken tonsure before his death (this custom spread in Russia in the XII century).

In the Middle Ages, unusual people and passion-bearers were loved. The sources describe miracles associated with Alexander Nevsky. The incorruptibility of his remains also played a role. Unfortunately, we do not even know for sure whether the real relics of the prince have survived. The fact is that the lists of the Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles of the 16th century say that the body burned down in a fire in 1491, and in the lists of the same chronicles for the 17th century it is written that it was miraculously preserved, which leads to sad suspicions.

The choice of Alexander Nevsky

Recently, the main merit of Alexander Nevsky is not the defense of the northwestern borders of Russia, but, so to speak, the conceptual choice between the West and the East in favor of the latter.

Per
Many historians think so. The famous statement of the Eurasian historian GV Vernadsky from his publicistic article “Two exploits of St. Alexander Nevsky ":" ... with a deep and brilliant hereditary historical instinct, Alexander realized that in his historical era, the main danger for Orthodoxy and the originality of Russian culture was threatened from the West, not from the East, from Latinism, not from Mongolism. "

Further, Vernadsky writes: “Alexander's submission to the Horde cannot otherwise be assessed as a feat of humility. When the times and dates came when Russia gained strength, and the Horde, on the contrary, became smaller, weakened and exhausted and then Aleksandrov's policy of subordination to the Horde became unnecessary ... then the policy of Alexander Nevsky naturally had to turn into the policy of Dmitry Donskoy. "

Against
First, such an assessment of the motives of Nevsky's activity - an assessment of the consequences - suffers from the point of view of logic. After all, he could not foresee the further development of events. In addition, as I. N. Danilevsky ironically noted, Alexander did not choose, but he was chosen (Batu chose), and the choice of the prince was "a choice for survival."

In some places Danilevsky speaks even more harshly, believing that the policy of Nevsky influenced the duration of the dependence of Russia on the Horde (he refers to the successful struggle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Horde) and, along with the earlier policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, on the formation of the type of statehood of the North-Eastern Russia as a "despotic monarchy". Here it is worth citing a more neutral opinion of the historian A.A.Gorsky:

“In general, we can state that in the actions of Alexander Yaroslavich there is no reason to look for some kind of conscious fateful choice. He was a man of his era, acted in accordance with the worldview of that time and personal experience. Alexander was, in a modern way, a "pragmatist": he chose the path that seemed more profitable to him for strengthening his land and for him personally. When it was a decisive battle, he fought; when an agreement with one of the enemies of Russia seemed most useful, he went to an agreement. "

"Favorite childhood hero"

This is how one of the sections of a very critical article about Alexander Nevsky was called by the historian I.N. Danilevsky. I confess that for the author of these lines, along with Richard I the Lionheart, he was a favorite hero. The "Battle on the Ice" was "reconstructed" in detail with the help of soldiers. So the author knows exactly how it all really was. But if we speak coldly and seriously, then, as mentioned above, we do not have enough data for a holistic assessment of the personality of Alexander Nevsky.

As is most often the case in the study of early history, we more or less know that something happened, but often we do not know and will never know how. The author's personal opinion is that the argumentation of the position, which we conditionally designated as “against,” looks more serious. Perhaps the exception is the episode with "Nevrueva's Host" - there is nothing to say for sure. The final conclusion remains with the reader.

Soviet Order of Alexander Nevsky, established in 1942.

Bibliography
Texts
1. Alexander Nevsky and the history of Russia. Novgorod. 1996.
2. Bakhtin A.P. Internal and foreign policy problems of the Teutonic Order in Prussia and Livonia in the late 1230s - early 1240s. The Battle on the Ice in the Mirror of the Epoch // Collection of scientific works dedicated. 770th anniversary of the Battle of Lake Peipsi. Compiled by M.B. Bessudnova. Lipetsk. 2013 S. 166-181.
3. Runners Yu.K. Alexander Nevskiy. Life and deeds of the holy noble grand duke. M., 2003.
4. Vernadsky G.V. Two exploits of St. Alexander Nevsky // Eurasian time book. Book. IV. Prague, 1925.
5. Gorskiy A.A. Alexander Nevskiy.
6. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky: Paradoxes of Historical Memory // "Chain of Times": Problems of Historical Consciousness. Moscow: IVI RAN, 2005, p. 119-132.
7. Danilevsky I.N. Historical reconstruction: between text and reality (theses).
8. Danilevsky I.N. The Battle on the Ice: Change of Image // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2004. - No. 5.
9. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky and the Teutonic Order.
10. Danilevsky I.N. Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (XII-XIV centuries). M. 2001.
11. Danilevsky I.N. Contemporary Russian discussions about Prince Alexander Nevsky.
12. Egorov V.L. Alexander Nevsky and Chingizids // Domestic history. 1997. No. 2.
13. Prince Alexander Nevsky and his era: Research and materials. SPb. 1995.
14. Kuchkin A.V. Alexander Nevsky - statesman and commander of medieval Russia // Patriotic history. 1996. No. 5.
15. Matuzova E. I., Nazarova E. L. Crusaders and Russia. End XII - 1270 Texts, translation, commentary. M. 2002.
16. Musin A.E. Alexander Nevskiy. The mystery of holiness. // Almanach "Chelo", Veliky Novgorod. 2007. No. 1. S.11-25.
17. Rudakov V.N. “Toiled for Novgorod and for the whole Russian land” Book review: Alexander Nevsky. Sovereign. Diplomat. Warrior. M. 2010.
18. Uzhankov A.N. Between two evils. Historical choice of Alexander Nevsky.
19. Fennell. D. The crisis of medieval Russia. 1200-1304. M. 1989.
20. Florea B.N. At the origins of the confessional schism of the Slavic world (Ancient Russia and its western neighbors in the XIII century). In the book: From the history of Russian culture. T. 1. (Ancient Russia). - M. 2000.
21. Khrustalev D.G. Russia and the Mongol invasion (20-50s of the XIII century) St. Petersburg. 2013.
22. Khrustalev D.G. Northern Crusaders. Russia in the Struggle for Spheres of Influence in the Eastern Baltic States of the 12th - 13th centuries v. 1, 2. SPb. 2009.
23. Schenk FB Alexander Nevsky in Russian cultural memory: Saint, ruler, national hero (1263–2000) / Authorized trans. with him. E. Zemskova and M. Lavrinovich. M. 2007.
24. Urban. W.L. The Baltic Crusade. 1994.

Video
1. Danilevsky I.G. Historical reconstruction between text and reality (lecture)
2. Hour of Truth - Golden Horde - Russian choice (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov) 1st program.
3. Hour of Truth - Horde yoke - Versions (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov)
4. Hour of Truth - Borders of Alexander Nevsky. (Peter Stefanovich and Yuri Artamonov)
5. The Battle on the Ice. Historian Igor Danilevsky about the events of 1242, about Eisenstein's film and the relationship between Pskov and Novgorod.